Where is
Anne Lister?

Anne Lister's remains were buried in the Halifax Minster after it was returned to Halifax following her death in Georgia in 1840. Yet, it remains a mystery precisely where her remains lie.

In this article, we explore how the lives—and especially the deaths—of generations of Listers intersect with the rich history of the Halifax Minster over the centuries, providing us with clues about where Anne Lister's body might be today and how we might find her.

A final resting place

The church of St. John the Baptist in Halifax, commonly referred to as Halifax Minster since it received that status in 2009 “in recognition of its great church status and monastic tradition,” is one of the oldest buildings in Halifax. Over the centuries, the parish church has been the stage of numerous events connected to Halifax’s history and its people, many of whom worshiped there, attended meetings, saw their children baptized, and their dead buried in the many vaults and brick-lined shaft graves below the church floors. Some of the illustrious tenants of the building have names that will be familiar to those studying Halifax history, and particularly the Halifax of Anne’s time: Priestley, Waterhouse, Ramsden, Walker, and, of course, Lister.

Though she is undeniably the most famous Lister from Shibden Hall buried in the Halifax Minster, Anne Lister certainly wasn’t the first. Many of her ancestors and siblings preceded her and, by the time she was buried, there were a considerable number of Listers who could also claim the church as their final resting place. However, though the Parish records include many Lister burials, there aren’t many surviving gravestones to memorialize them. It is possible some of these may not even have been memorialized in a gravestone in the first place.

There are more Lister gravestones from other Listers of this generation, which were also transcribed by E.W. Crossley. They belonged to Anne’s granduncles: Rev. John Lister (d. 1759), Samuel Lister (d. 1766), and James Lister (d. 1763). Today, only the stones of Rev. John Lister and Samuel Lister maintain fragments of their original inscriptions, but these are very worn out and barely legible. These stones can be seen at present in the south aisle of the church.

We have discussed the many Lister burials that can be traced to the parish church, whether by burial records or journals and family papers. Many of them were buried in the family vault, to which Anne refers to as the “vault” or “burying place.”

The use of the word “vault” in contemporary newspapers may lead us to believe that the Listers are buried in some sort of crypt. However, it is worth noting that the definition⁵ of “vault” is “a room under a church or in a cemetery, used for burying people,” but it can also be defined⁶ as “a prefabricated container usually of metal or concrete into which a casket is placed at burial.”

Anne Lister’s description of the grave her father was buried in matches the latter description quite closely. However, Anne’s description of the Listers’ style of burial doesn’t precisely match a burial in a family crypt. Instead, her description is more consistent with graves commonly described as ‘brick-lined shaft graves.’ A few good examples of such use of terminology are the newspaper reports that inform about the burials of John Waterhouse and Samuel Waterhouse. These men were buried in different years and their grave was, per the Leeds Mercury of the 19th of February 1879, in the exterior of the north side of the Halifax Parish Church. At the time, this was the only grave that was in use for burials. In this case, the newspaper uses the term “vault” to describe their final resting place and to refer to the grave itself.

The Lister family burial place

It is assumed from Anne’s description that the family vault is located in the south chapel, also referred to as the Holdsworth chapel, which is part of the Halifax Minster.

Anne Lister’s plan was copied in January 1836. Evidence suggests that it may be a companion to a list of occupiers of the Lister pews at the Parish Church in early 1836, written by Ann Walker. This list is part of the evidence used in the first Walker v Gray legal case. By cross-referencing the list of pew occupiers and the 1836 church plan, it is possible to map out all of the Lister pews in the old church and attribute to them the names of the people who rented them in early 1836. Aside from information regarding pews, the 1836 plan also includes the locations of several Lister and Walker graves scattered around the church.

It seems plausible that the person who copied the 1836 plan accidentally copied the graves that were mismarked, leading them to add the pencil note and eventually correct the plan before they inked these graves’ definitive location. No Lister grave is marked near the chancel in either plan.

The Halifax Parish Church

The church of St. John the Baptist at Halifax has undergone several alterations over the centuries. Decades after Anne Lister’s burial there were renovations that aimed at making the church more comfortable for churchgoers. Some of these meant extensive changes to the building’s fabric.

The Halifax Parish Church in Anne Lister’s time was different from what we see today. The churchyard in the exterior wasn’t covered in grass. Instead, locals were greeted by many gravestones that memorialized the dead buried in the church’s grounds.

The interior of the church was also quite different. The font was in the ante-chapel⁸ of the church and this area was separated from the nave by a wooden gallery. This gallery served as a screen and supported the organ, orchestra, and a few pews. At the time, there were no pews in use past this screen towards the western wall of the church, though two unused pews hid the base of the pillars of the tower arch.

The nave of the church was more or less similar to what we can see today, but the pews were taller and had different sizes. The pulpit was more elaborate and located in the middle of a row of pews on the south side of the middle aisle. Churchgoers walking the middle aisle towards the chancel⁹ would see this same pulpit on their right.

Memorials to the dead and, at times, funerary hatchments¹⁰ adorned some of the columns that supported the ceiling arches. There was an elevated gallery of pews in the north side of the church adjacent to the Norman wall, the pews in the north and south aisles extended to the chancel, and there was a cross aisle in the eastern part of the church.

This cross-aisle extended from the Rokeby chapel’s entrance to the pews in the southern side of the south aisle. In the 1840s, inscribed gravestones covered the many graves of past Halifax residents who had been interred inside the church.

The Rokeby and Holdsworth chapels, which both commemorate Vicars who served the town's parish church in the 16th century, were also different in Anne’s time. The Rokeby chapel, named after William Rokeby¹¹ (Vicar of Halifax and Archbishop of Dublin), was built between 1521 and 1533 [10] at the bequest of its namesake after his death. Per Rokeby’s will, this chapel was to be built on the south side of the Halifax parish church¹², but it ended up being built on its north side. The cause for such change is not known [5].

In the 1836 plan of the parish church, the interior of this chapel, also referred to as the north chapel, had only one row of four large pews and the aisle was located next to the chapel’s north wall. The Holdsworth chapel, also referred to as the south chapel, was built by Robert Holdsworth¹³ in accordance to his father’s wishes as a chantry chapel on the south side of the parish church [3]. In Anne’s time, the pews inside the south chapel were located towards the north side of this chapel and the aisle was next to its southern wall.

The chancel was separated from the nave by a wooden screen. The altar was located in this part of the church and adorned by an ornate wooden railing. On the 11th of April 1836, Anne Lister stood near this railing while Charles Musgrave performed the funeral ceremony of Jeremy Lister’s burial.

The floors of the church were fixed and, as was to be expected, the gravestones had to be moved during these repair works. However, “the grave stones are all replaced as nearly as possible in the same position as before”.

Other monuments were repaired, both the Rokeby and Holdsworth chapels and the choir underwent “great changes”, and sections of the roof of the church were repaired. These renovations also touched the churchyard. The east end of the churchyard was also “raised, leveled, and the spaces between the graves [were] sown with grass”.

In the early 1950s, another alteration to the interior of the church took place. This time, the east end of the south aisle was modified to accommodate a chapel dedicated to the Duke of Wellington’s Regiment [10]. The repurposing of this part of the church meant that the memorial to Archdeacon Charles Musgrave (d. 1875) was moved to its current location beneath the tower [7]. The Wellington Chapel, or Chapel of the Resurrection as it is sometimes called, also houses the Commonwealth windows.

A subsequent reordering of the interior of the church in 1983 included the installation of a dais for the nave altar. Some pews at the eastern end of the nave were also removed.

At the start of the new Millenium, the Halifax Parish Church was yet again altered. These alterations were funded by the Heritage Fund and cost £2,000,000. The purpose of these alterations was to provide a more adequate reception area at the west end of the church. Thus, to make space for this feature, the Victorian pews at the western end of the church were removed. As it happens, it was during the removal of these pews in March 2000 that the fragments of Anne Lister’s tombstone were found.

More recent alterations saw the north and south aisle pew platforms removed to the east end of the nave, the floor at the front of the nave was removed and the floor voids filled and paved, the floors below the nave altar platform were leveled and repaved, and a new (removable) octagonal oak timber dais platform was added.

At the time of Anne’s burial, the northwest corner of the parish church was part of the ante-chapel¹⁷. A possible placement of the stone in this area would likely contribute to the relatively good state of the inscription, but its placement at this location hasn’t so far been confirmed. Stones in areas with high foot traffic (i.e. in places that people have to cross frequently to access or leave their pews) have sections of their inscriptions worn out. Two good examples of this are the gravestones that memorialize Anne Lister’s great-great-uncles, which can be seen in the south aisle of the church. The alleged position of Anne Lister’s stone in a low foot traffic location and, later, below the Victorian pew likely contributed to the inscription’s preservation.

The damage to the tombstone is an immediately noticeable feature. Whereas other Lister stones remained relatively intact, Anne’s gravestone seems to have gone through a bit of a rough time. Two cuts with a particularly regular shape ensured that a large portion of the inscription, including the name of the deceased, would be lost. Furthermore, the edges of one of the large stone fragments seem to have been chiseled a bit. This is not surprising, considering these fragments survived the extensive renovations of the late 1870s, during which several gravestones were lost.

No information has emerged to explain all the damage inflicted to the stone. Though, in 2000, Rev. Pauline Millward is cited by the Halifax Courier as suggesting that the stone might have possibly been used to support the metal grates that covered the pipes of the heating system.

The image above highlights the damage to the stone that supports Rev. Millward's suggestion about a possible use or reuse to support metal heating grates. However, further investigation is needed to understand how the stone may have been cut to accommodate these grates. Furthermore, we must take into account that stones sometimes were moved inside the church and some were reused to fit specific purposes away from their original location.

We must also keep in mind that this particular stone was thought lost for decades until it reemerged, in March 2000, when Victorian pews at the north west side of the church were removed. These Victorian pews had been installed during Sir George Gilbert Scott’s renovations of the late 1870s. Additionally, it is also worth considering that having a stone intact enough for the inscription to be readable doesn’t necessarily mean that the stone is still whole when that observation of the inscription happens.

Another interesting detail about Anne’s stone are the colorizations of some sections of it (see above). It is possible the stone acquired this colorization during its stay under the Victorian pew, especially if the stone's fragments were in contact with soil prior to their recovery during the works of 2000.

To make the journey of the tombstone easier to visualize, we created a timeline to track what is known about its location and the changes to the church around it.

Where in the Minster is Anne Lister?

The mystery of the location of Anne Lister’s grave has intrigued many researchers and casual Anne Lister enthusiasts over the decades. Consequently, several theories about the grave’s probable location have arisen. The two most common theories place Anne’s grave either at the Holdsworth chapel or at the north west corner of the parish church. However, additional research has unearthed some evidence indicating other potential locations for Anne Lister’s final burial place. We’ll discuss these ideas, starting with the two most widely shared theories.

Both the 1836 plan and the early 19th century plan include the same markings for Lister graves in this area. Given Anne’s description of the approximate location of the Lister vault and the cluster of Lister graves in the area of the south aisle nearest to the Constable’s pew, we can say these are probably what Anne referred to as the “family burial place”. It is possible she simply referenced the chapel as a way to indicate the side of the church relative to the middle aisle in which the Lister vault was located and used the mention “next to the Constable’s pew” to refer to the vault as being in line with the row in which this pew is located. It is also possible that Anne accidentally made a mistake and, instead of writing “south aisle”, wrote “south chapel”.

According to an article published in the Huddersfield Chronicle of the 11th of October 1879¹⁹ mentioning the changes to the church after the renovations of the late 1870s, the gravestones were replaced “as near as possible” to their original locations before the renovations. Today, there are Lister gravestones near the cluster of Lister graves in the south aisle and some of these stones possibly are close to the location of some of the graves marked in these plans of the church.

We also see one Lister grave near the perimeter of the Holdsworth chapel in both plans of the church. However, it seems the grave is placed on the outside of the church, which is inconsistent with Anne’s reports of burials of family members inside the church. It is possible this grave belongs to other Listers buried in the 19th century or, since the plan doesn’t include dates for these graves, there’s a chance this burial place is even older.

Therefore, considering the evidence at hand, it seems improbable that there are Lister graves in the Holdsworth chapel.

2. The northwest corner of the church

Another possible burial place for Anne Lister is the section of the north aisle encroached between the west cross aisle and the west wall of the church.

There are two arguments that lend credibility to this theory: John Lister’s record [1], [2] of the stone location in the early 1870s and the location of the fragments of Anne’s stone, rediscovered by stonemason Andy Barraclough in March 2000 [5].

As was mentioned previously, John Lister allegedly copied the inscription of Anne’s gravestone and recorded it’s position “in the north aisle, west of the west cross aisle”. The fragments of the gravestone were found near this area of the church. This, coupled with the newspaper reports that mention how the gravestones were placed “as near as possible” to their original locations, adds strength to the argument that Anne’s grave might be nearby.

A possible explanation offered by David Glover's article for a burial this far from the other family graves would be the size of the coffin, which might have been too broad to fit into any of the existing Lister graves. At the time, it wasn’t uncommon for people to be buried with a double or triple layer coffin, which contained a lead shell and one or two wood shells. Furthermore, it is possible that there was no space left in the other family graves scattered around the church and away from the larger cluster on the south aisle, which would have led to the procurement of a new burial place for Anne. Given that this section of the north west corner of the church in 1841 was part of the ante-chapel and free of pews, it is likely that a larger grave would fit there.

However, it is important to also note that a position of a gravestone at a given time doesn’t necessarily mean that it has remained static since its owner’s burial. There are other stones in the church that “travelled” to other places over the decades. One such example is the gravestone that memorializes several members of the Walker family of Crow Nest, who were buried in the south aisle of the chancel [1] of the parish church in the early 18th century. Their gravestone's inscription, transcribed by E.W. Crossley around 1909, was located in the east cross aisle [1]. Furthermore, the damage to Anne’s stone may indicate that it was possibly used for different purposes before it ended up below a Victorian pew.

The church plan from the early 19th century shows a smudged area in the north aisle where a Lister grave had been marked in ink and then erased. The “L” that is still visible indicates the grave belonged to the Listers. The plan doesn’t include any pencil notes to specify why the correction was made or where the grave was then marked.

Thus, we can say it is possible that Anne’s grave was located here, but there’s also a chance that her stone was moved in the three decades that followed her burial and placed in the north aisle before John Lister recorded its location.

3. Burial at the Lister vault in the south aisle

Yet another possible option for Anne’s burial place is the Lister vault or, as we can see in both the 1836 plan and the early 19th century plan, the cluster of Lister graves on the south aisle of the Halifax Parish Church.

Judging by the parish burial records, the surviving stones that can still be observed today near this location, and the records from E.W. Crossley’s book from 1909, it’s clear there are several of Anne’s ancestors buried in this cluster of graves. Anne Lister’s own accounts of family burials suggest that some of her close relatives are buried at the family burial place, such as her brother John (d. 1810) and her Aunt Martha of Shibden Hall (d. 1809).

Looking closely at this cluster of graves marked on the 1836 plan, it seems these are merely something that can be used to inform us of the location of the Lister graves in this aisle. However, looking carefully at the early 19th century plan, we notice that it includes pencil markings over some of these same graves. The most legible notes are those of the Lister graves that occupy the full width of the aisle.

Looking at this inscription, we can say that John Ramsden (d. 1753) is a good candidate to be one of the people Anne mentions as being buried near her father’s grave. Another detail that might reinforce the idea that Jeremy Lister is buried in this cluster of graves is the pencil note on the grave directly below the one attributed to “James Lister” (see images of pencil notes in grave markings above).

As can be seen, the pencil marks seem to include the whole aisle and the bit of the note that is legible reads as “J[?].^y L-”, which is likely to be expanded as “J[erem]y L-[Lister]”. Considering Anne’s account of her father's funeral, the location and inscriptions of this Ramsden gravestone, the pencil note on the Lister grave shown in the church plan, and Anne Lister’s mention of having “2 stone in breadth below where my uncle is laid”, we can say there’s a good chance that Jeremy’s grave is part of the cluster of Lister graves in the south aisle of the church and is located close to those of his siblings.

It can be argued that this location would be a good burial place for Anne Lister too, given the proximity to family graves. After all, most of the Listers whom Anne knew, and who were laid to rest at the parish church, ended up buried with close relatives. Per Anne Lister’s journal of the 11th of April 1836, there was enough space for two coffins above Jeremy Lister, which indicates that at least this one grave in this cluster had space available. Jeremy’s grave was, after all, already encroaching on neighbouring graves so it would fit the intended burial spot. However, it has been suggested that Anne’s burial in her father’s grave would be unlikely due to the possible larger size of her coffin.

4. The east cross aisle

The Rokeby chapel was built in the 16th century and owes its name to Archbishop William Rokeby, who died in 1521. The Archbishop was so fond of Halifax that he left instructions in his will to have his body disemboweled and his bowels and heart buried in the choir of the parish church. The rest of his remains were laid to rest at St. Oswald’s Church in Kirk Sandall [4]. The entrance to the chapel was connected to the north aisle of the church by a cross aisle. The 1836 plan of the church shows one Lister grave marked in this aisle.

5. The Lister grave at the western end of the nave

Another interesting and intriguing possibility is a Lister grave marked on both the 1836 and the early 19th century plans as L-X and placed at the western end of the nave, right after the row of pews. The grave is marked behind the sketch of the orchestra pews, which, at the time of Anne’s burial, were placed over the last rows of ground level pews, towards the western end of the church.

6. Reusing a Walker grave

The Walkers owned several graves in the Minster, which can be seen in both the 1836 plan copied from an earlier 1835 plan acquired by Anne Lister, and in the early 19th century plan. The parish records indicate that there were some of Ann Walker’s ancestors buried in the church, including her uncle William Walker (d. 1809). These graves were scattered around the church, with two located in the chancel near a door, one in the nave, and one at the end of the row of pews in the north side of the south aisle.

7. Burial at another location within the Halifax Parish Church

Though the seating plans from the early 19th century are certainly a good resource and contain important information, we cannot say when the graves were marked on these plans. It is possible that these plans served different purposes over the years, from assisting with anything from pew rental logistics to burials.

Thus, while we can say that there were a number of Lister graves already in use in the late 1830s, and several graves marked on these plans match information recorded by Anne Lister, we cannot say for sure if Anne’s grave is any of those recorded.

With this in mind, we must always consider the possibility of a burial in any other available location within the church, provided that Anne’s coffin would fit that said grave and her stone, at some point, would cover it.

The practice of locating a grave

Now that we’ve identified a series of potential burial locations for Anne Lister, what do we do next? Geophysicists, archaeologists, and other researchers employ multiple methods to locate graves in various environments. For this article, we focus on a few non-invasive methods that won’t cause aesthetic or structural disturbances within the Minster.

Several pieces of information provide the necessary background required before engaging any of the described below methods. The pre-work helps you determine the best method and requirements for your goal.

First, a soil profile of the surrounding area is helpful. Soils high in clay content and moisture are not the best for GPR. Soils high in Ferrous minerals can affect magnetometry results. A cursory history of the area is also helpful. Has there been construction in the past? Are there other anomalies in the ground that could affect results while trying to locate a single coffin? If you are searching inside a church, it is helpful to know the methods used to construct the graves. Were the dead buried in large crypts below the ground? Were brick-lined shaft graves used to stack coffins? Approximately how many burials occurred in the area?

Having some knowledge of this information can make locating a grave much easier. Let’s review a brief profile on the current conditions within the Halifax Minster.

What’s happening inside the Minster?

Soil profile

Halifax is located in Calderdale, a metropolitan borough of West Yorkshire. The underlying bedrock dates back to the Upper Carboniferous period (about 310 million years old) and consists of Millstone Grit sandstone and Coal Measures [1]. Due to the geology, the soils under and around the Halifax Minster are sandy textured sandstone. The soil depth is classified as shallow, meaning that soil and subsoil are approximately half a meter in depth [2]. Also, the topsoil bulk density is .8 to 1.0 g/cm3. The direct ground below the Minster floor should be relatively free of clay and siltstones [3]. The nearby Hebble Brook area contains clay and sandy loam soils [2]. However, the relatively shallow depths we are concerned with are more than likely unaffected by the Hebble Brook soil profile.

Previous construction

As you read previously, the Minster has experienced multiple renovations to the Holdsworth Chapel area, Rokeby Chapel, the entire nave, antechapel, and the chancel. The floors' construction includes additional layers of gravel, lime screed, concrete or cement, and steel mesh—all of these having the potential to affect geophysical survey results [4]. Frequently during the 19th-century, church floors were comprehensively re-constructed and re‐laid to “cope with the post-depositional disturbance’ (p. 337) [5]. We know from archival records this occurred more than once inside the Minster since Anne’s burial.

Grave construction

There is a crypt below the Halifax Minster; however, there is no evidence suggesting it was used for burials in the 17th to 19th centuries [6]. The Historic England website describes the crypt's use as a library and office room but it is currently used as a song room and vestry. If archival material exists describing the exhumation and removal of burials from within the crypt, we did not locate it during this round of research. Anne Lister uses the terms “family vault” and grave interchangeably within her journals; however, her descriptions of the grave themselves more closely align with what is known as brick-lined shaft graves [7]. These shaft-graves, reinforced by brick, allowed for efficient stacking of coffins in organized locations. It appears this type of grave construction could be seen in the 2016 floor renovations' on the nave’s east side [8]. Visible in the images appear to be the rows of brick walls that could have made up the grave shafts' supporting walls. This type of grave construction helped ensure support and prevent the graves from caving in [9]. Traditional vaults (metal, cement, or brick-lined lined areas for individual or family burials) may also exist within the Minster [10]. However, the descriptions we reviewed in funeral expenses and Anne Lister’s journal entries regarding her family members did not explicitly describe metal lined vault structures. This could be another example of her descriptions merely being for her reference and not necessarily relied on to be textbook definitions.

Number of burials

It is currently unknown the total number of burials within the Minster. According to Hanson, inside burials began as early as the 14th century [11]. In 1815, UK law mandated using lead or metal coffins for all intramural burials [9]. In 1861, the Burial Act of 1852 ended the practice of burying the dead inside churches [12]. Therefore all burials within the Minster between 1815 and 1861 should have utilized lead or metal coffins.

Geophysical survey methods

While it’s not a requirement to obtain this level of detail to use geophysical practices, it may help in determining the most useful methods and how to understand the results. After reviewing the burial environment, we can look at methods used to detect objects underground. For this article, we discuss the methods at a high-level and provide information based on the context of locating Anne Lister’s grave. The science underlying each method is complex, and survey results from these methods require a trained professional.

Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR)

GPR is the most commonly used method in archaeology to detect clandestine and unmarked graves [13]. A radar unit is pulled behind an operator as the antennae emit frequencies into the ground at a constant rate. A receiver records the reflected signal and creates an image of anomalies existing below the surface. ‘The time it takes for the signal to return reflects the depth of penetration, and the returning signal can be stronger or weaker depending on the type of material it is passing through and reflecting off’ [14]. The area is surveyed in even parallel lines to create an image of the subsurface topography. The frequency used is dependent on multiple factors such as depth, nearby objects, and the amount of detail needed for identification. Depending on the environment and the visibility needs, it can be useful to conduct multiple GPR surveys with varying frequencies to provide the best interpretable results. Your visibility into the ground is mostly dependent on the frequency used, and therefore having an idea of the subsurface composition is helpful [15].

A similar GPR survey was conducted to verify Shakespeare's burial location in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church in Stratford, England [5]. Although his death is surrounded by mystery, it’s believed he is buried in his family vault with other members of his family. The survey helped the researchers identify burial spots below the ledger stones and see that the grave was not as deep as assumed initially based on myths and stories. Another story reports the possible removal of his skull during construction or a potential grave robbery. The survey results indicated a small disturbance in the area that may be his head, which researchers determine could result from his missing head. Again, GPR only lets you see that something exists below ground; it does not tell you what it is. But this is another study that indicates GPR is a useful starting tool to survey the Halifax Minster's subsurface, most notably the areas we have identified as possible Anne Lister locations.

As part of a more extensive study that began in 2004, the search for Edward the Confessor's burial location in Westminster Abbey commenced in 2005 [15]. Church records specify Edward’s initial burial location and subsequent relocations over time, providing researchers a starting place. The next step involved using GPR to verify the existence of the grave. ‘The investigation uncovered evidence of the target tomb, several other graves, some previously unknown, and at least one buried object’ (p. 6) [15]. Referring back to Anne Lister and the Minster, GPR can confirm a grave’s presence in the potential burial locations we have previously highlighted. While we can use it to confirm where graves exist, pinpointing Anne’s specific grave would require excavation.

GPR Survey Result Examples

• Radar finds 2000 graves of monks at Fountains Abbey, Church Times

• Geophysical Methods, Texplore

• Why doesn’t a pipe look like a pipe?, Sensoft

• Buried Reinforced Concrete Structure, Zonge International

Limitations

Although GPR is a widely used geophysical survey method used to detect objects underground, it has its limitations. You can detect anomalies, such as water tanks, pipes, and graves, but you cannot see the object’s details. However, an experienced technician can provide reliable analyses and conclusions based on the detected objects' size, shape, and location in many cases. However, definitive object identification requires excavation or additional analysis.

We know the Minster is full of coffins, and we have an idea of the relative burial patterns. We also know that many of these coffins are lead. A GPR survey cannot tell us which of those coffins belongs to Anne Lister. Suppose Anne Lister’s burial location was in Shibden Hall's yard or the Minster parking lot. In that case, GPR could quickly help us identify the existence and location of an unmarked grave. However, inside a church, where burials have occurred for hundreds of years, with coffins stacked on top of coffins, constructed of various materials, GPR survey provides little direction in the search for Anne Lister’s specific burial spot.

The following example displays three objects' survey readings to point out the difficulty in differentiating between objects buried underground. In the first row, you see the survey results of a metal sphere buried 10 cm underground. You see a 10.1 cm wire rotated at 90 and 45-degree angles in the two subsequent images. You can see a variance in the reflected signal, but you cannot differentiate the exact object below the surface based on a GPR scan.

Magnetometry

Magnetometry measures magnetic field anomalies in the surrounding area to detect ferrous and nonferrous metals in the subsurface. ‘Magnetic data can be used to identify and delimit lithological units, deformation zones, and provide information about the amount and proportion of different magnetic minerals’ [16]. Imagine using a large metal detector to locate lead coffins or coffin furniture in an unmarked graveyard. ‘While Magnetometry is best used to detect ferrous materials underground, it can locate more subtle anomalies in relation to archaeological locations’ [17].

Limitations

Surveying an area with materials that affect magnetic fields can prove challenging to locate a specific object. Besides numerous lead and metal coffins below ground, the Minster also contains piping in the floor and other construction materials below the surface.

Electromagnetic (EM) Induction

Although EMI is not as widespread due to the introduction of other methods, it is still useful. It can provide critical information in the search for objects in specific environments. Electromagnetic induction uses electromagnetic energy to measure the conductivity within the soil in a given area. Foreign objects and other anomalies in the soil can affect the conductivity indicating disturbances below the surface. Factors influencing conductivity measurements include the material properties, size, shape, orientation of a conductive object, and porosity/compaction.

In 2010 a survey was conducted of the Ocmulgee National Monument in Georgia, USA. Researchers surveyed the area around the central burial mound, and several disturbances were visible [19]. You can see where disruption to the soil occurred during a Railroad cut and what looks like ancient creek beds in the images. The results also indicated areas where burials present themselves very distinctly with a regular signature of low apparent conductivity. Based on this survey, it was possible to locate 62 additional grave sites and identify the burial grounds' boundaries.

Electrical Resistivity Tomography

‘The direct current resistivity method is also a well-established geophysical technique, used routinely and successfully in the detection and mapping of concealed subsurface structures like walls, ditches and anthropogenic or natural cavities’ [18]. Resistivity measures a material’s ability to conduct an electrical current. Objects with high resistivity have low conductivity. When surveying a given area, the results display the differences in the resistivity levels below ground. This method is considered more reliable than EMI.

Limitations

Resistivity and EMI have similar limitations in that the soil conditions can affect the results of the survey.

Which method is best?

When dealing with projects like this where you may rely on the donation of services, or people willing to participate that have expertise in specific areas, it is helpful to review all options at hand.

As you can conclude from the initial investigation and the most common methods for locating graves, there is no best method for this case. From archival records, we can assume Anne’s grave is inside the church in addition to hundreds of other people. Currently, there is an unknown number of lead coffins sprinkled throughout the Minster. Any number of methods can provide a starting point for burial mapping within the Halifax Minster.

When locating graves and cemeteries, it is essential to approach the project to characterize possibilities instead of identifying answers. Another issue that arises when determining a non-invasive way to locate Anne’s grave is that all these methods help identify an object's presence when the object is not necessarily known.

We know the Halifax Minster is full of graves. People have been buried in the Minster for hundreds of years. In 1815, all coffins buried inside churches had to be lead [9]. This means the Minster is full of lead coffins buried between 1815 and the 1860s when the practice ended. Due to these facts, there may be no way to locate Anne’s specific grave via standard geophysical survey methods. It would be easier to locate Anne Lister’s grave if she was buried in an unmarked grave on Shibden grounds. A GPR unit could survey the area and find something as large as a lead coffin.

However, Anne is buried inside a church, with hundreds if not thousands of others, where multiple renovations have occurred. The ground below the floor has been filled, refilled, moved, disturbed, and reinforced throughout the years. It may be helpful to use the above methods to determine where there may be no graves, helping to eliminate some of the possibilities. Unless a full-scale excavation can occur, more evidence is needed to narrow down Anne Lister’s final resting place within the Minster walls.

Let’s dig! Now what?

Imagine we were able to pinpoint Anne Lister’s grave. What's next?

The first step is acquiring permission from the Church of England to actually do some digging. The project must be appropriately detailed and a faculty must be requested and granted before the works start. Per the Church of England’s guidelines on dealing with human remains, these must be treated carefully and respectfully and an archaeologist must be involved in the process.

Since the Minster’s historical floors will be inevitably impacted by this work, it’s imperative that all care is taken so as to not damage them. This also applies to archaeology below floors, since that might contain clues about the history of the building itself. Per the Church of England’s guideline for repairs of floors, stones at surface level must be handled with care lest they crack or break. Care must also be taken in order to not damage other stones nearby and inevitably incur in loss of church fabric. After the works to access Anne’s coffin and remains are concluded, these floors must be fixed so they’re usable again. If new stones need to be laid, it must be ensured that those are “required to fill in gaps and are thought to be necessary, the replacements should be plain, of the same material and of similar density and porosity to the existing”.

Now back to Anne: we have excavated the surrounding area and can see a large coffin. Without opening it, how do we know it’s Anne’s coffin? First, we need to understand a little about her possible coffin construction.

Burial practices at the time indicate she may have been laid to rest in a three-layered lead coffin. The structure would likely be lead-wood-lead. Coffin furniture and ornate woodwork was a widespread custom for funerals in the 1840s. Her breastplate would most likely be placed on the wooden coffin layer, housed between the inner lead lining, preventing the decomposing body from leaking, and the outer lead burial coffin.

Additionally, the beginning of the 19th century marked an increase in funeral vanity. Coffins began to display ornate furniture, breastplates displayed additional detail, and artisans were employed to bring it all to life [20]. Based on the funeral expenses and descriptions in Anne Lister’s journals, the Listers were active participants in the trend.

There is a common assumption that Anne Lister’s body was embalmed before internment in her lead or lead-lined casket. However, before the mid-19th century, embalming was held for nobility and royalty, and even then, many areas did not perform this technique [21]. Religious beliefs and other urban legends prevented embalming from being a widespread practice at the time. It wasn’t until 1841 when the French chemist Jean-Nicholas Gannal’s embalming method was approved by the Brussel’s Medical Commission, that embalming started to become a common practice [22]. In the United States, embalming became popular during the Civil War and due to President Lincoln's embalming following his assassination in 1865 [23]. Embalming the dead president allowed for his body to make a two-week tour through the Union. Embalming had not gained widespread popularity in time for Anne Lister’s death.

Next, we consider the condition of her body when the lid is opened.

Condition of the body

There are a few possibilities for Anne’s body at this stage. First, in an airtight lead coffin, her body could have putrefied, leaving nothing but bone fragments and body liquor (or goo) [7]. A second possibility is her body was able to mummify naturally. Third, if the coffin was damaged, exposing her remains to the soil, we would then encounter soil and bones. Depending on her coffin's construction, it could be challenging to find any indication that it is her grave without full exhumation. Due to the burial laws and research on burial practices in the 18th and 19th centuries, it is safe to assume she was buried in a lead coffin (although we don’t have specific evidence of this).

A lead coffin adds extra concerns to exhumation procedures. The primary purpose of sealing the corpse in lead was ‘to prevent the escape of noxious odors and effluvia’ [24]. When these coffins are opened, there is a potential for the presence of infectious diseases. Due to the built-up pressure caused by decomposition a coffin can explode, exposing the decomposing remains in several ways. A lid breach or seam pop from pressure build-up is more likely, but exploding coffins have resulted in documented damage to mausoleums. Frequently, grave workers in the 19th century had to ‘tap’ the coffins to allow gases and goo to drain out, preventing coffins from popping open and exposing the surrounding topsoil, crypts, or vaults to goo [25]. If coffins were buried close enough to the surface, the lids could pop, exposing the contents above ground.

Why would her body be goo instead of dirt and bones? The bacteria in your stomach breaks down foods for digestion. After you die, this bacterium is no longer contained. Those gastric juices begin digesting your own body [26]. As oxygen is depleted, the anaerobic bacteria jump in and continue the decomposition process resulting in a dark liquid substance. This digestion of the body and other decomposition processes creates a large amount of gas—it’s beneficial if the container housing the decomposing body can expel these gasses. The expelling of the gasses allows the body to decompose and essentially dehydrate. But when the body goes through this process and the gasses and resulting liquid have nowhere to go, the body putrefies. In this scenario, the gas builds and builds until the lid can get knocked right off. Leaking coffins caused problems in the 19th century in overcrowded cemeteries and inside churches due to the odor and moisture accumulating near the surface. Coffins buried in the ground at your standard 6 feet or more did not cause problems as the depth and pressure prevented these issues.

Another option is that she is preserved in perfect condition inside the coffin. As mentioned earlier, embalming was not a common practice. The people were laid out in their ornate coffin beds for a few days before burial, at which time they were then placed in the coffin and subsequently buried. Under the right conditions, the corpse could have successfully mummified within the coffin. With hair and some skin still intact.

In 1990, Project Lead Coffin [27] exhumed a lead coffin to find a 17th-century woman with excellent preservation. Researchers could identify silk ribbons and the presence of what was determined to be rosemary on the body.

Another option is that Anne Lister is now dirt and bones. Sometimes, metal or lead coffins were poorly designed and could have fallen apart due to several factors. Sometimes the weight of the coffins resting above could cause them to crush and fall apart. This would cause the coffin to open and be exposed to soil and pressure allowing for a natural decomposition process.

Glossary of terms

Ante-Chapel or Ante-Church - The section of the church that is on the western side of the choir screen.

Chancel — The space around the altar of a church, including the choir and the sanctuary. This is located at the east end of the church building.

Chantry chapel - Dedicated chapel built especially for “chantry duties” by a priest.

Choir - The area of the church in which the seats of the choir and clergy are located.

Nave - Central part of the church, stretching from the main entrance or rear wall of the church to the chancel.

Sexton - Officer of the church whose functions include the maintenance of the church buildings. This officer may also be responsible for maintaining the churchyard.

Vicar - A title given to some parish priests.

Updates

On March 14, 2021

Added more details about the renovations of 1878 and 1879 at the Halifax Parish Church. Expanded the section about Anne’s tombstone.

The text of hypothesis 7 of the section “Where in the Minster is Anne Lister?” was rewritten, hypothesis 8 was updated to include legal constraints, and a new hypothesis was added (9 - Reburial in the churchyard at Halifax Parish Church).

On December 23, 2020

An additional sketch of the Minster floor plan with labeled pews and graves was discovered after the original publication of this article. It includes small penciled labels of the Lister graves in the South aisle, lending additional evidence to the theory that the List family vault is in the south aisle and not in the Holdsworth Chapel. Descriptions and images were updated throughout to reflect this new information.

The “The Lister family burial place” section has been extended with additional information. Hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 of “Where in the Minster is Anne Lister?” were expanded, and minor updates made to 4, 5, and 6.